Holfstede’s Cultural Constraints Essay

In his article â€Å"Cultural Constraints in Management Theories,† G. Holfstede (1993) argues his main point that there is really no universal management theory, such that the means to manage organizations greatly vary across countries and cultures. For instance, the concept of management in the United States is different from, say, Asia or Europe, let alone apply to the two latter regions. A specific management concept or practice may be accepted in America but it does not mean that it is also accepted in some other part of the world. Holfstede begins by exploring the origins of the concept of management in cultures in varying times and notes the differences in the management theories. For example, managers are said to be cultural heroes in British and American regions while Germans see the engineer as the one having a heroic role precisely because German presidents and CEOs already have mastered their specialized skills and, hence, does not call for a manager. In Japan, the permanent worker group bears the ‘heroic role’ and that these workers are controlled not by managers but by their group. French people, on the other hand, do not have the notion of managers as Americans know of them. Rather, French workers think of one another as cadres, cadres being a social class obtained by learning at the proper schools and a social class maintained for a lifetime. Another case is that of Holland where the practice of managing people rests on the need for a consensus among all the involved individuals. These practices are established neither by contractual relationship nor by class distinctions but by an open-ended balancing of interests and exchange of views. In essence, Holfstede firmly maintains that the American concept of management theories vary from nation to nation and culture to culture. That being said, no management theory unique to a certain country or culture can perfectly apply to another culture and country precisely because of the variations among these cultures and countries. Reference Holfstede, G. (1993). Cultural Constraints in Management Theories. Academy of Management Executive, 7(1): 81-94.

Islam and the West Essay

The Clash of Civilizations? : Islam and the West When taking another glance at Huntington’s â€Å"Clash of Civilizations? †, the provocative nature of his arguments and the fervent scholarly debate that followed are hardly surprising. Although, for myself, I remain troubled by one important question. Is Huntington completely wrong, as many propose, about a rising conflict between the nations of Islam and those of the West in the post cold war era? Huntington contends that the future will boast conflicts between and within civilizations. More so, cultural issues will bring on these conflicts with a particularly divisive role being played by religion. With that said, it is my contention that Huntington is not completely wrong about the evolution of conflict between these two. Though I feel his groupings of civilizations into eight defining entities to be arbitrary and over generalized. My research and focus will be strictly on the aforementioned conflict between Islam and the West, for which I feel are appropriately categorized, though further research should be done on the capacity of violence between sects within religions. Eric Neumayer and Thomas Plumper (2009). International Terrorism and the Clash of Civilizations. British Journal of Political Science, 39, pp 711-734 doi:10. 1017/S0007123409000751 From,http://journals. cambridge. org. proxy. lib. pdx. edu/abstract_S0007123409000751 The authors examine the elements of conflict through the means of terrorism and root causes that can be drawn from these. They examine Huntington’s claims of increased international terrorism against foreign and domestic civilizations in the post-Cold War era. Drawing from data they identify key components in the underlying causes/provocations for international terrorism. Huntington, S. P. (1993). The Clash of Civilizations?. Foreign Affairs, 72(3), 22-49. The primary concept is that, after the Cold War, there will be a fundamental shift in the dynamics of conflict on a global level. No longer primarily influenced by nations and economics, the proceeding conflicts will be hedged on the fundamental cultural differences that exist within civilizations.

High school Confidential Essay

Some people say that high school is the most crucial part of a student’s life but others they say that it is the happiest chapter of a student’s life. There are a lot of things that a teenager wants to explore and it starts when one reaches high school; curiosity starts in this part of a person’s life. But did it ever occur to your minds what happens in a typical and an atypical high school class? Have you ever pictured in your minds what is it like being in a high school class? Have you ever wondered how the students’ relationship with their teachers is? What do the students do often? In this section â€Å"demented kindergarten†, of the book â€Å"High School Confidential† Iversen tackles about the relationship of an atypical high school students with their teacher. This chapter shows how the students get along in class and how they treat each other. It also talks about what goes on between the students. Through Charity and Vic’s relationship as classmates, as shown in the section demented kindergarten, Iversen shows that respect was lacking among the students. There is no good relationship between the two students; it employs that there was no respect for women. In this section, Iversen also shows the domineering nature of man over women. In Charity and Vic’s relationship it was shown that Vic does not have respect over Charity as a woman. Although Vic and Charity were classmates and charity was a girl Vic did not bother to talk to her in a disrespectful manner; it is not lawful to talk to women in an odd way because it degrades women’s confidence and dignity. When Vic said that he had a hung over, Charity was kind enough to tell him to take Advil for his headache, but instead of saying thank you to Charity Vic yelled at her and called her a slut. It was not proper for him to call Charity a slut because he is not in the position to scrutinize someone, most especially women. Disrespect and power over women was also portrayed through Vic and Sara. As Iversen had written in his book, Vic spun Sara’s chair until she can no longer take it and tumbled. Sara did not oppose Vic while he was spinning her chair; she just let him do what he wanted to do because Vic was more powerful than Sara; because Sara might have felt that she can not do anything to stop Vic because she was helpless. Although Vic knows that Sara would be helpless and might tumble if he would spin the chair faster he still managed to spin Sara’s chair without hesitation. In the social context of the book â€Å"High School Confidential, Iversen’s observation about how men disrespect women and the domineering nature of man is very common. Vic is powerful in the social structure of their school he was a bully. And because he is a man he is over empowering women, like Charity and Sara, around him. He is fund of dominating because he is a man; he wanted to show that he is more powerful than women. Men are domineering in nature and they seek superiority over women; they raise their manliness by doing things to make women look and feel helpless and less powerful. This nature of men is actually very visible in the society and in some cultures. Just like in Japan, men of Japan do typical things that a man does; earning money for the family and being the head of the family, they are not suppose to be seen in kitchen because it would be a disgrace for their manliness. While women of Japan are suppose to do only household chores, they are not entitled to do manly things. Some men show their manliness in other ways such as sadism, they tend to beat their wives because they wanted to show that they are the more powerful kind and that no one can oppose them most especially women, but some men do the beating habitually that’s why many government agencies help battered women. That is also why there are republic acts which tend to help women against violence. A single insult to women can be treated as violence against them; telling them that they are slut, whore and the likes. Cursing women and saying various words that might degrade them can be called violence against women. In the section â€Å"demented kindergarten† Iversen tells the domineering nature of men is a problem of our society. Everybody is not aware of this problem that is why Iversen made a way on how to communicate with the society through his book â€Å"High School Confidential†. Iversen wants others to know that in simple ways such as bullying a classmate can employ male domination. Iversen also exploited the disrespectfulness of men to women. Although the theme of the section is not that clear and visible unless understood, Iversen had still managed to write the book in the most convenient way he knows (Iversen)

Special Education Needs Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Special Education Needs - Essay Example Special Education Needs (SEN) refers to that extra or different wants of children will have due to the fact that such experience unusual learning difficulties something which lead to such children to experience difficulties not only in learning but also having an equal access to education, training and even work opportunity. Besides, language difficulties such children experience, numerous challenges, difficulties in cognitive process, and behavioural difficulties as well as psychomotor difficulties. The inclusion debate has also been concerned with the continuity dilemma for children with special needs given the fact that most children with special education needs find it hard to fit in the higher education levels as a lot of government help has in the past been given to the primary level (Audit Commission, 1992). This imbalance has created a different kind of treatment for children with special education at primary school level and different treatment when such children graduate into higher levels of education. This has been a challenge and has been fronted as a main argument by the proponents of the inclusion debate who argue that inclusion will put the children with special education need at an advantage in that if they are integrated into mainstream classes, as opposed to specialist schools, they will advance their chances of performing well at higher levels of education (Copeland, 1991). Children with special education needs are more likely to miss opportunities of higher education, as there are no sufficient numbers of higher-level education institutions, which offer specialised education (Brown, 1994). Therefore most children with special education end up getting admission to mainstream universities and colleges where special treatment is not high compared to the primary level of education. There is a need to include or integrate children into mainstream classes early enough so as to prepare such children to fit normally in mainstream colleges and universities. Children who attend specialist schools are more likely to take a long time to fit into the mainstream colleges and universities than children with special education who attended mainstream schools early in life (Allen, 1994). Specialist schools have been negatively viewed as being associated with the disadvantaged, the less fortunate, the mentally ill, the deaf and such negative labelling which can affect the self-esteem of children with special education needs. Therefore specialists' schools meet the immediate needs of the children at primary school level but do not prepare the children for challenges associated with higher levels of education. The other challenge for those children who attend specialist school is that the children may get used to specialised treatment due to the availability of special equipment and specialised staff. This is lacking in most institutions at higher levels of education and such children are more likely to experience problems in future when trying to change and fit into a mainstream class. The debate surrounding special education needs has been surrounded by controversies in agreeing to what constitutes of special needs, what to be included and what not to include. This has led to debate on whether some conditions such as dyslexia were

Story Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 5

Story - Essay Example Zax has gone through a lot of psychological trauma in the last six years since when his body started to transform from a child’s to an adult’s. It was the start of teenage when he started to notice his chest grow larger than it should. His class fellows and friends called him everything from a girl to an aunt. The condition has negatively affected Zax’s self-esteem. This is the prime reason he has had a very small circle of friends ever since the onset of his teenage. Zax wants to change the condition and is ready to do whatever it takes to come out of the web he has concocted around himself out of the sheer consciousness of his chest. Zax is too shy to visit a doctor with his family to discuss the condition. While his manboobs are a big concern for the people outside his home, they seem to be invisible to his immediate family. Zax really has nobody to be psychologically counseled from. He searches the condition over the Internet and learns that this is a condition called ‘gynecomastia’. Contrary to his expectations, he finds that gynecomastia is increasingly becoming a major concern among men, and many men suffer from the condition at least at some point in their life. Zax explores the causes of and details about gynecomastia and learns that having gynecomastia makes an individual no less of a man biologically than the men who do not have gynecomastia. He finds out that there are no major causes of gynecomastia and that it can be acquired by any man, though certain factors like consuming steroids can optimize its chances of occurrence. Zax also finds out that the condition is treatable through liposuction or surgery and once treated, it never comes back. Now that he has learned the biology of the condition, Zax feels confident about sharing the problem with his parents. He convinces his parents to let him undertake a surgery. The family visits a surgeon, and the surgeon recommends liposuction to treat Zax’s gynecomastia. The whole

Fortifying U.S. National security Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4000 words

Fortifying U.S. National security - Essay Example To respond to the first two revolutions requires foreign policy initiatives in the Middle East and elsewhere as bold as the Marshall Plan and as encompassing as energy security. (Tucker, 2006) To create a national security strategy requires an understanding of the changing nature of conflict particularly, and that requires an understanding of the erosion of the sovereignty of nation-states. For 350 years, wars have been fought between the uniformed armies of nations with fixed borders, meeting in the field to achieve a political result. Rules evolved for these wars: Geneva conventions and a body of international law spell out the norms for humane treatment and repatriation of prisoners, the rights of noncombatants, rules against the use of torture, and so forth. Nations disintegrate; and when a nation disintegrates, as in the former Yugoslavia, geographic borders warp and sometimes evaporate. (Clancey, 2006) Indeed, part of the process of creating peace among ethnic combatants in a disintegrating nation involves drawing new boundaries and building new nations. And now, in the new age of terrorism, United States experience violence being perpetrated by combatants in civilian clothes, representing no nation, attacking civilian targets, with no political agenda, and possessing only a fanatical commitment to destruction for its own sake. When the nature of conflict changes, the means of assuring security must also change. New forms of violence resemble war, but by historic standards they are not. What is this new conflict, and how should United States deal with it United States call much of this new kind of violence terrorism. But labeling every bad actor a terrorist tempts us to embrace wretched allies on the always-dubious theory that the enemy of our enemy is our friend. On this same theory, United States supported undemocratic and repressive authoritarian oligarchies during the Cold War simply because they were opposed to communism. (Howard, 2006) United States set about assassinating foreign leaders United States did not like. The bills United States accrue from despicable allies and unprincipled policies that undermine the very principles United States claim to defend, however, always come due. In the past ten years, United States have seen a dozen or more low intensity conflicts between tribes, clans, and gangs. United States participated in some, including in Somalia, where United States experienced the painful consequences of brawling, however well intentioned, in another man's alley as memorialized in the fi lm Black Hawk Down. United States passively observed similar bloody confl icts, in Rwanda and elsewhere, where the weapon of choice, a machete, dated to the Bronze Age. (Korb, 2006) United States successfully formed a "coalition of the willing," essentially an ad hoc international posse, in Bosnia, Kosovo, and Kuwait. United States earned a quick victory in Kuwait largely due to intensive bombing and maneuver

Popular Culture Today Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Popular Culture Today - Essay Example No country seems to be free from the rapid growth of popular culture. The only difference is that in advanced countries the growth of popular culture may takes place much rapidly than in underdeveloped countries. For example, soft drinks were signs of lavish life styles earlier and it was available in western countries only. However, it is available in all parts of the world at present. In other words, cultural changes or life style changes are taking place in all the corners of the world. Even the tribal people or the people living in rural areas are changing their life styles periodically. Even in some of the most patriarchal societies like Saudi Arabia, one can visualize pop culture changes. America is a country which is striving for changes. Many people are of the view that cultural changes or the development of new popular culture normally originates from America. Since America is a liberal society, it can accommodate any changes. Religion has not much role in politics or social life of the people and therefore America can welcome or accommodate any changes in pop culture easily. This paper analyses the trends in changing popular culture in America. Students may not be typical of the population as a whole, though jeans are widely popular among nonstudents of same age group, and only slightly less widespread among older age groups. So thinking about jeans is a good way to begin a discussion on popular culture (Fiske, p.1). Clothing is one area in which one can witness huge changes as part of the pop culture changes. Earlier, Americans used pants stitched in different ways. Tight pants, loos pants and bell bottom pants were the symbols of fashion at some periods of time in the past. However, the present era is the era of jeans, especially blue jeans. Majority of the celebrities, not only in America, but all over the world are fans of blue jeans at present. Even though jeans provide a rough look, even the soft hearted females are currently fans of jeans. One of the unique characteristics of jeans is the fact that it attracts all people irrespective of their religion, race, culture, gender, socioeconomic status, age etc. Apart from jeans, T shirts also attract Americans very much. Half pants is another major way through which Americans express their fashion concepts. Only on formal occasions, Americans use formal dressings like pants and coats. On all other occasions they like to wear jeans, T shirts, half pants etc. The gap between two different fashion trends has been reduced completely over the past few years. â€Å"Apparel designers used to have an eighteen-month lead time between concept and sale. Now they're reducing that to a year, or even six months, in order to react faster to new ideas from the street† (Who decides what's cool? Certain kids in certain places-- and only the cool hunters know who they are). Current generation is always looking for new ideas and concepts. The better living standards and advancements in scie nce and technology helped them in doing so. For example, the advancements in computer technologies or digital electronics brought huge changes in America and other parts of the word. The size of the computer has come down gradually and as a result of that, laptops, palmtops and gadgets entered the market. Now a mobile phone like Samsung Galaxy S2 or iPhone can perform the activities of a computer without many problems. It is difficult to see an American without a

Business Lawl Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Business Lawl - Case Study Example When one of the parties failed to perform his or her obligation in a valid contract where he or she freely entered, he or she can be held liable for breach of contract. Breach of contract is an actionable tort and the party at fault can be held liable for the payment of damages for the loss suffered by the plaintiff. There are mainly two kinds of losses: actual and nominal. Actual losses are those that can be established by computation or estimation. Even if there is no actual loss, the claimant can still be entitled to nominal loss with the fact that a breach was made. The claimant should prove the losses suffered by him or her through presentation of evidences or documents because of the legal maxim that "he who asserts must prove". In this case, Jettison could only be liable for the actual loss suffered by the lessor when it breached the contract. The actual loss is $12,000, which is the expected amount of the lease payments for the remainder of the contract which is one (1) more year. An employment contract must also contain the essential requisites of an ordinary contract to be legally binding. ... Failure to assent within the prescribed period is a rejection of the contract, thus, no contract is formed. In this case, the employment contract is not yet legally binding since Sara did not yet give her assent to it. She has seven (7) days more to accept, reject or make a counter-offer. If Sara did not act on the contract, or if the contract was rejected or a counter-offer was made but the company did not agree, the contract is automatically extinguished and has no legal effect at all. The non-compete clause restricts an employee from sharing or utilizing the trade secrets or other information of the company he or she had worked within a certain period. It can be made a provision of an employment contract and the validity of the restrictive period will rest upon the discretion of the court. The case of Double Click v. Henderson decided by the New York Supreme Court states the rationale behind the acceptance of a non-compete clause as part of a contract or an agreement. Answer to Situation No. 4: Slip and Fall Accident When a person slipped or fell on a property and caused him or her injury, the owner/possessor of the property can be held liable for torts or damages under the premises liability rule. Under this rule, the owner or possessor of the property where the slipping or falling accident happened can be held liable for the injuries sustained by the visitor (invitee, licensee, or trespasser) if: 1) the possessor knew or should have known of the condition, should have realized that it involved an unreasonable risk of harm to the visitor, and should have expected that the visitor would not discover or realize the danger; 2) The owner/possessor failed to exercise reasonable care to make the condition safe, or to warn the visitor of the condition and the

The Role of Women, Family, and State according to Aristotle Essay

The Role of Women, Family, and State according to Aristotle - Essay Example According to the views of Aristotle, every State has the intention of doing good for its people. It does not matter in what ways the goodness is achieved, at the end of the day every State has the intention of providing the best for its people and giving them a comfortable and justiciable lifestyle so that they can develop as human beings and usher into the new era with more confidence and passion.Mankind always acts in the order of good. Every society is formed with a view of having a positive impact and influence on the people who comprise the society and this circle flows in existence. The human existence is marked by positivism as well as optimism for the greater good.He then follows by saying that the definition of the leader to be the manager of a few people and for the Statesman to be the manager of a large number of people is sometimes misconstrued to display a false picture which does not exist in reality. Government is very different to the system which is run in the househ olds and from that understanding it would be foolish to say that the qualification required is the same for both the parties.Aristotle then goes on to say that in a family the men is the master and the woman is a slave to the master who has to take care of the house as the man would be out in the fields to get food and money for the family. He works and earns for the family while the woman is there to take care of the children and the men of the family. This is a very narrow definition of the family and Aristotle has gone on a very negative tangent to define the functions and characteristics of the family.

Impacts of Cultural Differences Essay Example for Free

Impacts of Cultural Differences Essay College Graduation Thesis Subject: Impacts of Cultural Differences on International Business Negotiation Name: Chen Xiujuan Student No. : 0 8 5 1 0 3 4 0 Specialty and Class: Business English, Class 3 Department: Department of Humanities and Arts Supervisor: Liu Mifan Date: 2011-3-02 Contents Introduction1 1. Types of Cultural Differences2 1. 1Value View2 1. 2. Negotiating Style2 1. 3. Thinking Model2 2. Impact Of Cultural Differences on International Business Negotiations4 . 1Impact of Value Views Differences on International Business Negotiations4 2. 1. 1Impact of Time View Difference on Negotiation. 4 2. 1. 2Impact of Equality View Difference on Negotiation. 5 2. 1. 3 Impact of Objectivity Difference on Negotiation. 6 2. 2 Impact of Negotiating Style Differences on International Business Negotiations. 7 2. 3 Impact of Thinking Model Differences on International Business Negotiation. 8 3. Coping Strategy Of Negotiating Across Cultures. 9 3. 1 Making Preparations before Negotiation. 9 3. 2 Overcoming Cultural Prejudice. 10 3. Conquering Communication Barriers. 10 Conclusion11 Bibliography12 Acknowledgements13 Abstract The business negotiations under different cultural conditions come to cross- cultural negotiations. With the economic globalization and the frequent business contacts, cultural differences seem to be very important; otherwise they could cause unnecessary misunderstanding, even affect the result of the business negotiations. This means it is very important to know the different culture in different countries and the ways to avoid the culture conflicts in the internat ional business negotiations. The article commences from the types of culture differences, then it explains the impacts of these culture differences on international business negotiation and finally it analyzes how to deal with the problem of the cultural differences correctly in negotiation process. Such a standpoint is emphasized: In the business negotiations between different countries, negotiators should accept the other party’s culture, and try to make him be accepted; then make a correct evaluation with the help of valid communication and discover their real benefits between them. Besides, we should know clearly and try to accept the culture differences as possible as we can. It is very important for the success of culture negotiations. Key words: Culture; Cultural differences; Business negotiation; Impact Introduction Along with the advancement globalization and China’s WTO entry, business enterprises in China have to face more and more business negotiations with foreign enterprises, especially with American enterprises. In these negotiations, Chinese negotiators sometimes feel uncomfortable, puzzled, lost, irritated and the alike, because of unfamiliar custom and behaviors demonstrated by American negotiators. Meanwhile, American negotiators confront the same situation. Cult rural differences between China and west countries could cause many problems. Therefore, understanding cultural differences and overcoming them is crucial in international business negotiations. Although the definition of culture is numerous and vague, it is commonly Recognized that culture is a shared system of symbols, beliefs, values, attitudes and expectations. Culture is a major determinant in business negotiation. So have a clear picture of culture differences if of great significance. . Types of Culture Differences The east countries and west countries have produced different cultures on the different continents. Among the different cultures, value views, negotiating style and thinking model appear more obvious. 1. 1Value View Value view is the standard that people use to asses objective things. It includes time view, equality view and objectivity. People may draw a different or even contradictory conclusion abo ut the same thing. Value view is one of the most important differences among the many factors. It can influence the attitude, needs and behavior of people. The value view varies from nation to nation, people know that the eastern person focus on collectivism, while the western people pay more attention to individualism. 1. 2. Negotiating Style Negotiating style refers to the tolerance and graces which the negotiator shows in the negotiation. The negotiators show their negotiating style through behavior, manners and the method of controlling negotiation process during the negotiation. The negotiator’s negotiating style has a bearing on their culture background. According to the culture differences, negotiating style falls into two types: the east negotiating style pattern and the west negotiating style pattern. 1. 3. Thinking Model Thinking model reflects the culture. Because of the influences of history background, continents, words and living method, different nations generate different thinking models. Surely, there is more than one thinking model of a nation, but one is more obvious compared with others. As a whole, east people, especially Chinese have strong comprehensive thinking, image thinking and curved thinking, while analytical thinking, abstract thinking and direct thinking are possessed by the west people. 2. Impact of Cultural Differences on International Business Negotiations With the rapid development of economy, we need to do business with businessmen under different culture background, so in order to reach trade agreement, it is necessary for us to study the impact of culture differences on international negotiation in global business activities. The impact of culture differences on international negotiation is extensive and deeply. Different cultures divide the people into different group and they are also the obstacles of people’s communication. Accordingly, it is required that the negotiator should accept the culture of each other. Furthermore, through culture differences, it is important that the negotiator reveal and understand the other party’s goal and behavior and make him or herself be accepted by the opponent to reach agreement finally 2. 1Impact of Value Views Differences on International Business Negotiations Value Views Differences on International Business Negotiations fall into three types: time view, negotiation style, thinking model. Each has big influences on business negotiation 2. 1. 1 Impact of Time View Difference on Negotiation. The time view which affects the negotiator’s behavior varies from east countries to west countries. The oriental or the Chinese negotiators are usually cautious and patient. They need to go through the phrases of coming up with proposes, bringing up objections and ending the trade which takes a longer time. And they hope to arrange rich time to go on a negotiation, thus knowing more about the opponent . They are good at long and continuous battle. While west people or we could say American people, consider time is precious. They tend to resolve problems swiftly. So, in business negotiation, American businessmen often complain about the delay and the lack of efficiency of negotiators from other countries, while these countries also make a complaint that the Americans lack patience. There is a popular saying among American negotiators and businessmen: It is prohibited to steal time. That shows the time view of Americans. To them, time means money. The time view of Chinese is cyclic. They use long-term and systematic viewpoints to value the importance of the topic. A famous people classify the time view into two kinds: straight-line time viewand cyclic time view. The former pay more attention to concentration and speed, and the later stress doing many things at one time. That they insist on different time view leads to different negotiating style and method. The American people represent the straight-line time view and they have a strong awareness of modern competition. They look for speed and efficiency. So they value time badly and consider time as a special commodity whose value could be assessed. They often use minute to calculate time . They hope to reduce negotiation time at every phrase and want to complete the negotiation quickly. But the Chinese time view is cyclic and they place emphasis on unity. Moreover, it is necessary to be punctual at negotiations. West people have a strong time view, if you don’t comply with the appointment time, they may give you a punishment and they will regard you as unreliable and irresponsible person. Being late for negotiation will give the west businessmen opportunities to exert pressure onyou, and then you will lose the status of being initiative. 2. 1. 2 Impact of Equality View Difference on Negotiation America went through the bourgeoisie revolution of striving for the equality and freedom, so they take equality into their heart. Americans stick to equality and fairness in business, and hope that both could gain benefit. When introducing the topic or situation, the west people would like to use concrete method, particularly data. Their negotiating method is that they will describe their viewpoint and propose at the beginning in order to get initiative. Under this principle, they would come up with a reasonable resolution which they think is very fair. In business relationship, the sellers from America regard the buyer as a counterpart. Americans are fairer than Japanese is sharing benefits. A lot of American managers think fair division of profits is more important than how much they could get. At this point, the east people are different. Because of the deeply influence of class view, they don’t pay much attention to equality. They usually adopt single-win strategy in business negotiations. When involving economic benefits they think much about their own benefits and profits and don’t give so much attention to the benefit of their partners. The market economic system of developed countries is quite mature, so west countries take win-win strategy more in negotiation; basically, they could take the benefits of both into consideration. 2. 1. 3 Impact of Objectivity Difference on Negotiation The objectivity in international business negotiation reflects the degree to which people treat any things. West people especially Americans have a strong objectivity on the understanding of issues. At negotiation table, Americans don’t care much about relationship between people. They don’t care if the status of the opponent is equal to theirs. They make decision based on facts and data, not people. The saying that public things use public ways is a reflection of American objectivity. Therefore,Americans emphasize that Businessmen should distinguish people and issues, what they are really interested in is the actual problems. But in the other parts of the world, it is impossible for them to distinguish people and issues. . 2 Impact of Negotiating Style Differences on International Business Negotiations The impacts of negotiating style differences on international business negotiation mainly exist in negotiating method and negotiating structure. Take the negotiation between America and China as a example, since the oriental care more about unity in thinking, they method they adopt in negotiation is from unity to parts, from the big to little, from the abstract to the concrete, that is to say they should each agreement on general terms, then begin to talk about the concrete terms. And usually not until the end of the negotiation do they make compromise and promise based on all the items, and then to reach agreement. The west people are influenced by analytic thinking, so pay more attention to logical relations between things. They consider more about concrete things than integrity. And they tend discuss the concrete items at the beginning of negotiation, so they often resolve the price, delivery and issuance respectively at first. And they may make compromise at every detail, so the final contract is the combination of many little agreements. The negotiating structure is linked with cultures. Negotiating structure mostly refers to the number of the participants. In business negotiation, the foreign delegation is usually composed by 3-5 people, while the Chinese one could be more 15 people. The foreign negotiators not only need to negotiate with their counterparts but also need to discuss with related person in charge or the government. When making the final decisions, the Chinese negotiators often discuss the results repeatedly from the workers to the board to avoid being decided by a single person. That results from the influence of collectivism. So they often said to their partners: Let us think about it. Let us discuss it. But the west negotiators could make the final decision without going back for discussion. That because their admire individualism and hard working. They have strong independence. They would carry on according to the best ways after knowing their goals. What’s more, most west people think that they have the ability to deal with the negotiation situation on their own. And truly, they are brave enough to take responsibility. 2. 3 Impact of Thinking Model Differences on International Business Negotiation The thinking model of Chinese tends to be comprehensive, concrete and curved, while the Americans are usually analytic, abstract and straight-line. We Chinese are accustomed to talking about general principles at first and then move onto details. To Chinese negotiators, the core is the general guideline, and the details are subject to the guideline. After figuring out the big picture, other problems are easier to resolve. It is the most obvious feature of Chinese negotiators. But west businessmen, especially Americans are likely to discuss the details first and try to avoid the principle. They value details very much and think noting about the unity. Accordingly, they want to discuss the details at the beginning of negotiation. They are direct and simple in negotiation. As a matter of fact, many facts show that General principles first have impact of constriction on the parts and details. For instance, our government insists on the principle that Hong Kong and Macao are undivided parts of China’s territory. In the important diplomatic negotiations such as Entering into relationship with America, Hong Kong’s and Macao’s Coming back into their motherland. It is under such principle that we established the tone of the negotiation and controlled the skeleton of the negotiation, thus we get the advantage and prompt the success of negotiation. 3. Coping Strategy of Negotiating across Cultures The culture differences in cross-cultural communication have various impacts on operation of enterprises. These differences will influence negotiation and management of transnational operation; what’s more, it may have bad effects on the harmonious relationship between our country and foreign countries. Maybe that will lead to the missing of market opportunities, the increase of trade cost and the low efficiency of company management. So, it is really necessary for us all to eliminate and avoid disadvantageous effects. 3. 1 Making Preparations before Negotiation. The negotiators must make good preparations if they want control the development of negotiation successfully in the complex situation. Only do they make good preparations can they make changes freely according to the situation of negotiation and avoid the happening of conflicts. Because the international business negotiation involves extensive aspects, more preparations are needed. The preparations often include the analysis of the negotiators themselves and the opponents; the constitution of negotiation group, elaborating the negotiating goal and strategy and going on imitation negotiation when necessary. When making preparations, you should try to know the opponents while you analyze yourselves. Analyzing yourselves mainly refers to studying if the project is feasible. To knowing about the opponents means understanding their strength such as credit status, the policy? business customs and regulations of their countries and the conditions of their negotiating members and so on. . 2 Overcoming Cultural Prejudice Tolerating different cultures and overcoming cultural prejudice contribute to better communicating with each other and understanding each other. West people often think that they are powerful, capable and experienced, so sometimes, we need to recognize then and give then some good comments. We should learn about the foreign cultures before negotiation a nd accept and understand their cultures in negotiation, because every country regard their own cultures as a matter of course and hope that their culture could be recognized and accepted. 3. Conquering Communication Barriers Two trains running at different railways in the opposite direction will collide with each other; maybe this is the best arrangement for trains. But to communication between people, there won’t be communications if people go ahead according to their own ways. Trains will collide with each other if they run on the same railway at the opposite direction. But if we measure by the objective of people’s communication, only we meet each other, can we have communication and friendship. In negotiation, sometimes we can’t make much progress although we have talked for long time. And sometimes both parties are not satisfied. After thinking, that is caused by communication barriers which happen easily in cross-cultural negotiation. We should make sure if there appear communication barriers, if so, we must overcome them. Generally speaking, we should pay more attention to the following three communication barriers in cross-cultural negotiation: the communication barriers caused by culture background of both; the ones caused by misunderstanding of the contents and information from the partner; the ones caused by not being willing to accept the opponent’s contents and ideas. Conclusion â€Å"Social Customs varies in different countries†. In a word, cross- cultural communication will meet the problem of culture differences surely. In turn, culture differences also influence all aspects of international business communication. To avoid or to resolve the culture differences is a huge task in international business negotiation. In order to step into the international market successfully, we must have the awareness of culture differences, acknowledge culture differences and understand different cultures. Try to know yourself and know them. What’s more, we should respect different behavior of businessmen under different culture background, and then we could reduce unnecessary conflicts resulting from not respecting the opponents. It is beneficial for both to form an atmosphere of mutual trust and cooperation, reduce culture differences and turn disadvantages into advantages and benefits. Thus, we could avoid conflicts and obstacles, then to promote communication and harmony in international business negotiation. Bibliography 1]George Yule. The study of Language[M]. Cambridge University Press,2000:202-209 [2]Harvey, Paul,,â€Å"The Oxford Companion to English Literature† [M]. London: Oxford University Press. 1978:23-25 [3]Philip R Harris, Managing Cultural Differences [M]. Gulf Publishing Company, 1987:234-260 [4]Wang Cheng fa. A Glimpse of Foreign Land [J]. Kaifeng: Henan Univesity Press, 2000:58-62 [5]. [M]. : ,2000:2-6 [6]  · —— [M]. : ,2004 [7].. [M] : ,2003:340-342 [8]. [M]. : ,2001 Acknowledgements As acknowledgements for my paper, only I — the writer is responsible for the shortcomings. I much acknowledges my thanks to all my teachers, especially to Miss Liu Mifan, my supervisor, who has provides me support, critical ideas and careful suggestions. I also want to thank my family who always give me time, encouragement and secretarial services, especially my parents. Finally, my classmate and friends, who provided thoughtful and thorough reviews of my paper, must be acknowledged.

The American Company Kraft Foods Ltd Marketing Essay

The American Company Kraft Foods Ltd Marketing Essay In the current economic situation, companies are putting all their efforts to keep their customers loyal and present market shares. To attain these objectives they are launching new products, implementing new and more interesting marketing campaigns or releasing loyalty programmes. No matter the industry they activate in, all the companies want to build long lasting relationships with their customers, as it is easier and cheaper to keep existing customers rather than acquire new ones. This paper will focus on the operations of one giant in the food industry, the American company Kraft Foods LTD, and all the attention will be centred on the chocolate confectionery branch of the organisation and on its leading chocolate brand in Europe, Milka. After a thorough analysis of the chocolate confectionery industry in the United Kingdom, the introduction of a new product in the Milka range will be discussed. Corporate Objectives Kraft Foods is the worlds second largest food organisation with revenues over $42 billion as they state in their fact sheet published in 2008. It has operations in many subsectors of the food industry such as: snacks, beverages, cheese, convenient meals and groceries (Datamonitor, 2009a). The companys manufacturing plants are located in 70 countries all around the world and it sells its products in more than 150 countries (Kraft Foods, 2009a). Being such a big company in the industry, it has set well defined long term objectives to help its growth strategies. Firstly, the company is well aware of the new trends in its sector and is aiming to offer consumers healthy products, as people have become more health conscious. Secondly, the issue of conserving the environment is intensively discussed nowadays therefore Kraft Foods has decided to implement projects for sustainability. Also, the company wishes to expand even more and increase its world coverage (Kraft Foods, 2009b). To satisfy this last objective the company is acquiring different companies which are operating in key markets. One example could be the recent acquisition of the British chocolate manufacturer Cadbury, which offers the company to opportunity to consolidate in the UK chocolate market (Mintel Oxygen, 2010). Kraft Foods also wants to expand to Southeast Asia as the countries here present high growth rates in the food industry (Mintel Oxygen, 2008) Furthermore, since 2008 the company has decided to implement a restructuring plan designed to lower its cost structure and optimize capacity without affecting the quality of products (Kraft Foods, 2009a). Market Overview As stated before, this paper will focus on the chocolate confectionery operations of Kraft Foods in the UK market and therefore an overview of this particular market is necessary. Datamonitor (2009b) states that the chocolate confectionery industry accounts for almost 67.5% of the total value of the UK confectionery market, which also includes gums, cereal bars and sugar confectionery (Chart 1). Chart 1: Market segmentation in the UK (Datamonitor,2009b) The UK chocolate confectionery industry has been in a permanent growth from 2003 until 2008, increasing by 11.1%. (Mintel Oxygen, 2008b). This particular segment is characterised by fierce competition as some of the most well known food giants are competing here. The main players in 2007 were Cadbury, with 35.3% market share, Masterfoods, with 30%, Nestle, with 14%, Ferrero, with 4% and Kraft Foods with 1.8% as it can be seen in Chart 2. Mintels 2008b forecast on market growth states that it will grow by 17% until 2012, if the prices of chocolate would have remained at the 2007 value. In real terms and taking into consideration inflation this growth will be of just 2%. Chart 2: Manufacturers value shares in the UK chocolate market 2003-2007 (Mintel. 2008b) The report on chocolate confectionery published by Mintel Oygen (2008b) states that current trends in the market highlight the fact that more healthy foods need to be released on the market, forcing in this way companies to produce healthier chocolates. As childhood obesity is an important issue in the UK, there is an absolute need of healthy products and what now is a trend it will later become a way of living. Also, consumers tend to become more educated on chocolate and soon will demand high quality products. Moreover, the same report shows that consumer preferences have started to change and shortly they will ask for new flavoured chocolates. Marketing Audit: Internal and External After getting a brief insight on the chocolate confectionery sector in the UK, an internal and external marketing audit needs to be done in order to identify which are current problems of the company. Firstly, since it has consumer products the overall marketing mix implemented needs to be analysed. Then, the strengths and opportunities must be identified in order to overcome the companys weaknesses and threats. Also with the help of the PEST model and Porters five forces the chocolate confectionery industry will be further analysed. Marketing Mix Kraft Foods is doing business in the consumer products domain, therefore its marketing mix is specially tailored for its consumers. Its main products are food items such as chocolates, biscuits, different beverages, snacks and convenient meals. Some of the companys products have become leading brands worldwide proving that the company offers qualitative products and also knows what its customers want. The company prefers to buy its raw materials from third parties such as agricultural cooperatives and independent producers to ensure high quality of the final product. (Kraft Foods, 2009a) The pricing policy of any company has to be elaborated in such a way that it retains current customers and also attracts new ones (Brassington and Pettitt , 2006 pg.431 ). The company charges acceptable and affordable prices for its products. However these prices are affected by raises in raw materials, as was the case in 2008 when the company had to raise prices to dairy, coffee, cocoa, wheat or nut products as a result of price increases for the raw materials (Kraft Foods, 2009a) When talking about promotion, Kraft Foods invests important amounts of money into well developed marketing campaigns which are meant mainly to attract new customers but also to consolidate its image in the eyes of present consumers. The company uses some of the tools in the promotional mix such as advertising, sales promotions, public relations. The organisations products have a wide distribution, reaching many markets all around the world. The main places where the products can be fund are supermarket chains, wholesalers, convenience stores, retailers, club stores or mass merchandisers (Kraft Foods, 2009a). SWOT As it has already been stated, Kraft Foods operates in different sectors of the food industry and in many markets in the world, so for each sector the company faces particular threats and has different strengths and weaknesses. In the case of the chocolate confectionery industry in the UK, the following SWOT analysis can be elaborated based on information provided by Datamonitor (2008). Strenghts: Kraft Foods has a strong brand image worldwide Well developed distribution network Manages a variety of brands in UK such as Milka Chocolate, Oreo biscuits, Toblerone, Terrys Chocolate Orange and others; well managed brand portfolio The raw materials used for production are always of high quality Weaknesses: Over the years the company had to recall some products, action which has damaged its image Its margins have constantly decreased causing problems in the implementation of new growth plans Opportunities: The acquisition of the British chocolate manufacturer Cadbury offers access to its expertise, research and information on consumer trends in the UK Permanent growth in the demand for healthy products New technologies and developments in the industry Threats: Fierce competition in the UK Governmental laws regarding alimentation Too much divestment, having a large portfolio of brands worldwide might affect the companys cash flow PEST Kraft Foods is doing business in a constant changing environment and as a result it must always know what is happening in the UK environment. The UK business environment is continuously affected by political/legal, economical, social and technological /environmental factors. Political factors The laws in the UK regarding alimentation are quite tough with for companies, but they work in the benefit of the consumer, demanding more usage of healthy products. Any law imposed by the UK government or by the European Union can affect the companys operations and revenues. Economical factors Currently the UK has not entered the Euro Zone and it is still able to have a stronger currency then the Euro Zone. However, in the context of recession, the UK has reported a drop in GDP and in the third quarter of 2009 the GDP contracted by 0.2%, and remained 5.1% lower than in the same period of 2008 (www.statistics.gov.uk, 2010a). The recession has affected greatly this country and as a result the disposable income has decreased, affecting the populations buying habits. Consequently, companies had to reduce prices and implement different schemes to maintain their customers and lose a small percent of sales. Social factors The UK population is very affected by the recession and many of them have lost their jobs. Unemployment rate has reached 7.8% in November 2009, but however there has been registered a decrease in the number of unemployed people (www.statistics.gov.uk, 2010b). Since unemployment is quite high, not many British people afford to spend money on other things that are not of strict necessity, such as chocolates. Confectionerynews.com (2009a) states that women are more likely to have chocolate due to the fact that when they reach menopause they become more stressed and need to get relieved. Technological factors Technological advances always occur in any industry. Companies in the chocolate confectionery sector have to invest in research and development in order to come up with healthier products as customers demand these intensively. Recently, Kraft Foods and Nestle were accused of using palm oil and indirectly encouraging deforestation in Indonesia (www.confectionerynews.com, 2009b) and as a result both companies had to review operations and decided that from 2010 will use only certified palm oil. Porters 5 Forces Analysis The UK chocolate confectionery industry can also be assessed by using Porters five forces. Threat of new entrants The UK industry is quite fragmented with many companies competing within. Since some of the largest companies are present here such as Nestle, Kraft Foods, Cadbury and Mars Inc. it is very difficult for a smaller company to enter this market. However there are also niches, such as premium chocolates which could still welcome new players. This particular threat is considered to be low as it is difficult to enter the UK market. Competition It is common knowledge that the UK market presents high levels of competition. The worlds food giants are in a continuous quest for market shares and increased sales volumes. This particular force might seriously affect Kraft Food since it still doesnt have a high market share, but because of the new acquisition of Cadbury this might change. This force is considered to be high, as there are important companies battling for supremacy. Buyers bargaining power Nowadays British people choose to spend money just on the necessary products and have eliminated premium products from their daily shopping. As a result, this force is considered to be quite high and have serious impacts on the companies activating in the industry. Suppliers bargaining power Over the years companies have built lasting relationships with their suppliers, as a result suppliers work jointly with buyers to ensure productivity. Due to these relationships the suppliers bargaining power is considered to be medium, as raises in raw materials can occur and affect the final products of the company. Threat of substitutes Chocolate can have many substitutes such as gums, candy or ice cream. As new consumer trends show that there is a serious shift to healthy products chocolate could be seriously affected, unless producing companies launch healthier versions. Consequently this threat can be considered as being medium to high. Current year Competition Five years time (assumption) New entrants Power of buyers Substitutes Power of suppliers Figure 1: Porters five forces (current year and five year prediction) Assumptions The VAT has increased to 17.5% (www.hmrc.gov.uk), automatically causing increases in the prices of all products. A further increase might endanger future plans for launching new products and present product sales might be affected. Also, if the UK decides to join the Euro zone serious price changes might occur and people might think they are paying more for a product then when they were using the sterling pound. It must not be forgotten that consumers are changing their buying patterns and preferences so they might choose to replace chocolate with other sweets. Marketing Objectives and Strategies for new product Growth Strategy As it has been previously presented, Kraft Foods does not have a considerable market share on the UK confectionery industry. It should focus more on its leading European chocolate brand, Milka, and make it a preferred chocolate in the UK too. Milka chocolate is present on the UK market in just six assortments (www.milka.co.uk, 2010) while other chocolate brands have more assortments. The need for a new product has been identified, and the proposed product is Poppin Milka. This new product will be alpine milk chocolate and in the interior it will have a bounty of popping candy. Since it is a new product for the Milka brand, Ansoffs new product existing market growth strategy will be followed (Dobson and Starkey, 2002). Marketing objectives Gain more market share on the UK chocolate market Build a strong brand name and image for the Milka brand Attract new customers, while retaining current ones Identification of Alternative Plans In the worst case scenario the new product could prove to be a failure, even though prior research would show that it should have success. Since the product has already been launched Kraft Foods could enhance it by adding new flavours such as melon, strawberry or cherries, fruit flavours which make a good combination with popping candy. Confectionerynews.com (2009c) shows that nostalgia has helped boost the UK food market, and since popping candy was very popular few years back, it could make a comeback. Also, it should be noted that the new product will be targeting children, but their parents are the ones who have to be convinced to buy the product. If the product does not manage to reach forecasted sales for the first months, the marketing plan should be reviewed and changed where it went wrong. Promotional Programme Objectives of the campaign: the main objective of the campaign will be to draw attention on the new Milka product and promote it throughout the year. Also, through this campaign it is intended to raise Milkas brand awareness and help build a stronger brand image. Target audience: the main target audience is children aged 5-13, but indirect target audience is men and women aged 25-40, who have children aged 5-13, since they are the ones who will buy the products, even though they might not be the users. Message: since the product is mainly targeted to children, the message has to be appealing and funny. It will stress on the fact that it is fun to have popping candy together with chocolate, a soft and creamy chocolate like Milka. Budget: the product launch campaign could be quite expensive, but Kraft has to take the risk and invest approximately  £2 2,5 million, to develop an effective and integrated marketing campaign. Since the company is a world giant it should be able to afford such a campaign especially when aiming to gain market share. The company already has a contract with Ogilvy to make the advertisement for Milka, so it can count on the help of a well known advertising agency. (Mintel Oxygen, 2009) Promotional mix: prior to the actual launch of the product (two weeks ahead), a guerrilla marketing campaign will be conducted such as to raise interest in the new product. Teaser ads would be placed in supermarkets and short TV ads will be played on kids TV networks. After the launch, samples will be given to customers of selected supermarkets such as Tesco or Sainsbury for a period of one month. Then full length ads will be played on kids TV networks for the next three to four months. In conjunction with TV ads billboards will be posted close to supermarkets and playgrounds to make sure the target audience becomes familiar with the product. At celebration times sales promotions will run to encourage and increase the product sales. The tagline used in all the ads will be Poppin the magic with Milka and will feature the Milka symbol, the liliac cow dancing on a popping candy dance floor and in the end the dance floor will explode as fireworks, showing the properties of popping candy. Time frame: the marketing campaign is designed for a period of twelve months commencing January, 2010. Measurement, Review and Control Any marketing campaign has to be evaluated before, during and after implementation (Brassington and Pettitt, 2006). The campaign will be evaluated before implementation through focus groups. During the campaign, sales will be closely followed and on-site interviews will take place. In the end, the campaign will be assessed by evaluating sales volumes and revenues, and check if the marketing objectives have been attained. Conclusion Launching a new product in a market where Kraft does not have high market share might be very difficult, but such actions must be done in order to become known on the market. With a well designed product and marketing campaign the new product should be able to reach expectations. Poppin Milka should be a success since Milka chocolate is a European leading chocolate brand, and British people are familiar to the brand.

Teen Alcoholism :: Teen Drinking

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã¢â‚¬Å"In 1991, a study by the United States Surgeon General’s office stated that 8 million out of the 20.7 million young people in grades 7 through 12 drank alcoholic beverages every week. It went on to say that 454,000 of those youngsters reported weekly binges (Claypool 21).† In the United States and all over the world underage teens are drinking, and it may be because they just don’t know about alcohol and its effects (Monroe 56). Underage or teen drinking is a major problem today that is increasing more and more, and something needs to be done to stop this increase and to control the number of underage drinkers. There are many statistics that show just how big this problem is amongst our youth. One frightening statistic that shows how much this problem has been increasing is that between 1948 and 1988 the percent of teen drinkers increased by 57 percent (Nielsen 47). Many parents may think that their child may not drink until they are much older, but the average age that teenagers try alcohol is between the ages twelve and sixteen (9). Also, a 1995 study taken by the University of Michigan stated that 35 out of 100 high school seniors drank 5 or more drinks at one time at least once during their two week survey period (Claypool 10). â€Å" A recent poll by the National Association of Student Councils found that alcohol was the leading school problem and 46 percent [of students] said it was the school’s most serious problem (Monroe 53).† This may be because alcohol is very dangerous because it is a poisonous drug that can be very addictive (Mitchell 6). In order to help solve this problem of underage drinking we must first try to understand why teens drink alcohol. There are many reasons why a young teen may choose to drink alcohol. A national survey, taken in 1995, showed that 87 percent of parents thought that teens drank because of peer pressure, but 79 percent of teenagers said it was just because they liked the feeling they got when they drank (27). The main reason and the biggest reason why teens drink would probably have to be peer pressure, but there are many other reasons other than peer pressure why a teen might drink. â€Å"In addition to peer influences, some experts believe that media depiction of alcohol use in print advertising, television and radio commercials, and fictional television programs such as sitcoms and dramatic series glamorizes alcohol to young people and can influence their decision to drink (Mitchell 28).

Lincoln and The 1864 Presidential Election Essay -- Government

The 1864 presidential election was one of the important elections in the American History. In the middle of a devastating civil war, the United States had held its presidential election almost without discussing any alternative (American President: A Reference Resource). None of the other Democratic nations had ever conducted a national election during the time of war. While there was still talk going in postponing the election. That was when Lincoln pointed out that America needs a free government and without conducting the election we have ruined ourselves (Boller P.115). So, before even the year had ended United States had gone forward with its voting just as in peacetime. This was one of the deeply anxious election outcomes for both, the Republican and Pro-war Democrats. They both joint together and formed the National Union Party, which re-nominated Lincoln and selected Andrew Johnson, of Tennessee a prominent War Democrats. The campaign of 1864 was noisy and abusive. The threat posed by the Democratic Party, which met in Chicago in August. The Democrats came forward boldly and proclaimed the Civil War a failure, demanded the immediate ending of hostilities, and called for the convening of a national convention to restore the Union by negotiation with the Confederate government (American President: A Reference Resource). The Democrats nominated General George B. McClellan, former commander of Union forces whom Lincoln had fired because of his failure to pursue Confederate General Robert E. Lee's army after the battle at Antietam in 1862. Some of the Radical Republicans were completely against Lincoln’s reelection (Mintz). Lincoln then had asked the congress to seat representative from the three recently conquered Con... ... to George W. Bush. January 2004. Chadwick, Bruce. Lincoln For President. Sourcebooks, Naperville: Illinois, 2009. McNamara, Robert. The Election of 1860 Brings Abraham Lincoln to the White House: Presidential Politics at a Time of National Crisis. Retrieved: March 29th, 2012. http://history1800s.about.com/od/presidentialcampaigns/a/1860election.htm Mintz, S. The 1864 Presidential Election. Digital History. (2007). Retrieved: March 30th, 2012. http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/database/article_display.cfm?HHID=121 Walsh, Kenneth T. The Most Consequential Elections in History: Abraham Lincoln's Victory in 1864 Led to the End of the Civil War: Lincoln's victory in 1860 triggered the Civil War, and his victory in 1864 allowed him to win it. Retrieved: March 29th, 2012. http://www.usnews.com/news/articles/2008/07/30/the-most-consequential-elections-in-history

multiple sclerosis :: essays research papers

Multiple Sclerosis My aunt has had Multiple Sclerosis for about 11 years now. She started showing symptoms when she was 27. I remember the day that I walked into my parent’s room to find my mom on the phone crying. I stayed to listen to the conversation and when she was off the phone she told me what was going on. All I could do at that point was remember all of the times we went on bike rides and had a lot of fun. It was a really bad feeling knowing that we would never have the chance to do any of that again. It was really hard for my uncle to handle and I am sure it still is, but when ever I go over they’re house everyone is cheerful and easy to talk to. Whenever I get the chance I talk to my aunt and she is still very intelligent and fun to hold a conversation with. So if you ever see a person with a disease, do not be afraid to talk to them for they are very wise. Multiple Sclerosis (MS) is a chronic, often disabling disease that randomly attacks the central nervous system. Specific symptoms of the disease can not be predicted. The symptoms may range from tingling and numbness to paralysis and blindness. MS is a devastating disease because people live with its unpredictable physical and emotional effects for the rest of their lives. My aunt has to be feed, bathed; she cannot do anything for herself. MS is a well-known disease, but poorly understood. In the United States there are about 200 new cases diagnosed each week. MS is a common disease and not always caused by genetics. Therefore, I feel we all need to have a better understanding of this disease that has no cure yet. My aunt has been in my prayers and many other peoples for a long time. I just want to see her get rid of the nasty disease. I hope to make MS more understanding in my paper. In my paper I will explain what MS is, who gets MS, what MS has to do with the metabolism, what some of the symptoms of MS are, and some treatments for MS. Multiple sclerosis is a progressive disabling illness that affects nerve cells in the brain and spinal cord. â€Å"Under normal conditions these nerve cells are surrounded by an insulating sheath made of fatty myelin, which speeds the passage of nerve impulses.

Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs and the Road to Self-Actualization PSY 330: Theories of Personality January 30th, 2012 Abraham Maslow: Hierarchy of Needs and the Road to Self-Actualization Abraham Maslow was an American theorist that was one of the advocates of humanistic psychology. He believed that self-actualization is â€Å"a situation that exists when a person is acting in accordance with his or her full potential† (Hergenhahn & Olson, 2011).I will illustrate the key concepts of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs of humans, research the methodologies of his concept, and address how self-actualization has conceptualized on this type of personality development. His contribution to humanistic psychology has helped self-help enthusiasts, educators, and business proprietors alike. Maslow's hierarchy of need was one of the main theories that assisted in paving the route to what he believed was self-actualization.Because Positive regard assists in the growth of motiva tion, there are certain essential functional needs that human needs, and Humans can fulfill their full potential in a positive manner. Who was Abraham H. Maslow? Abraham Maslow was born in Brooklyn, New York on April 1, 1908. His parents were immigrants from Russia who were poor and had six other children after Abraham. He spent his time mostly by himself and liked to read. Being that he was Jewish in a neighborhood that was not he felt unhappy and lonely.As a child he had parents that were emotionally and verbally abusive towards him and over time he grew to have strong feelings of hatred especially for his mother. He eventually made amends with his father, but never did so with his mother. When Maslow transferred from City College of New York to Cornell University in 1927; his introduction to Psychology was unexceptional at best. Maslow’s professor Edward B. Tichener lectured â€Å"scientific introspection† that he found to be â€Å"cold and boring, and caused him t o lose interest in psychology temporarily† (Hergenhahn & Olson, 2011). A year later he went back to City College of New York.He went on to the University of Wisconsin where he received a Bachelor’s Degree in 1930, his Master’s Degree in 1931, and his Doctoral Degree in 1934. While living in Wisconsin, â€Å"Maslow married his first cousin and childhood sweetheart, Bertha Goodman, and they eventually had two children† (Hergenhahn & Olson, 2011). In the mid 1930’s, Maslow worked as a Carnegie fellow for 18 months under theorist Edward L. Thorndike. Thorndike’s theories were similar to the studies of theorists Pavlov and B. F. Skinner. He theorized â€Å"animal intelligence and applied animal to human educational experiences† (Indiana. edu, 2012).Thorndike emphasis was on Behaviorism and Psychoanalysis. The type of people he was interested in like Albert Einstein were people that had solid evidence of them doing whatever they needed to do to achieve their highest potential. Maslow found their innovative ways of creativity to be one that needed to be studied and examined. Throughout the 1940’s and early 1950’s he continued to strengthen his interest with people that he considered to be â€Å"self-actualizers, looking back at history, he studied individuals such as Abraham Lincoln, Jane Adams, Albert Einstein and Albert Schweitzer† (strenghtfoundation. rg).By the late 1950’s, along with Clark Moustakeas, who was another revolutionary psychologist, set up â€Å"two meetings that were held in Detroit among psychologists who were interested in founding a professional association dedicated to a more meaningful, more humanistic vision† (strenghtfoundation. org). This was where the â€Å"Third Force†, Humanistic Psychology began to take form. Many topics were discussed that fell under the same umbrella on how self-actualization is manifested and what were the building blocks of oneà ¢â‚¬â„¢s originality.Three years after the meetings Brandels University sponsored the introduction of the â€Å"American Association for Humanistic Psychology† (strenghtfoundation. org). This was the beginning of one of the groundbreaking contributions to Psychology Abraham Maslow has done. Another way that Maslow has contributed to Psychology by making sure through gatherings, meetings, lectures, and theory that the matter of humanistic psychology is just as valuable and needed to be taught as that of Pavlov’s theory of behaviorism and that of Freudian’s psychoanalysis theory.As a prophet of human potential, Maslow believed the realization of one’s total potential variously described as self-realization to be the ultimate goal of all human kind† (Dhiman, 2007). He did this with extensive research and by working with theorist that shared the same interests, like Carl Rogers. He did his bit on teaching at a university, but quickly found out that he d id not like it very much and had the students teach the class as he monitored. The times that he did lecture the class, he asked questions that broaden the horizons of how the student saw themselves in the future.The questions were similar to â€Å"Who wants to be president? â€Å"Or a great composer†, and even an aspiration to be a saint? † (Dhiman, 2007). I believe this gave the students a platform to start thinking of a broader prospective for them and create what they needed to build their motivation to do and be anything that they can imagine to be. This drive or push in their self-esteem is one of the best ways to feel like they are needed and wanted. According to a book written and reviewed by R.J Lowry, it was an assembly of eight articles that were written by Maslow and his research on humans and the â€Å"character structure†; one of the articles depicted his â€Å"theory of human motivation and his concept on the hierarchy of human needs† (Lowr y, 1975).Maslow’s Hierarchy of Human needs is one of his most popular theories. Maslow’s focal point on his theory of motivation was the concept was that humans have a set of needs. According to our text, the â€Å"hierarchy of human needs is an arrangement of the needs from lowest to highest in terms of their potency† (Hergenhahn & Olson, 2011). see figure1). Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs [pic] Figure 1, Maslow Enhanced 2011. This figure illustrates the various levels of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs was one of the main theories that assisted in paving the route to what he believed was self-actualization.The lowest part of the pyramid is the Biological and Physiological needs. One would think that basic life needs like â€Å"air, food, drink, shelter, warmth, etc. , would be an essential need. How would we as humans, be able to live without it. To Maslow he didn’t look at it that way. According to Maslow, p sychology has overemphasized the importance of such needs in determining the behavior of humans in a modern society; a person’s life cannot be dominated by hunger or thirst† (Hergenhahn & Olson, 2011). He was interested in knowing what happens when the needs of the physiological nature have been met. The second tier on the pyramid is Safety Needs. Feeling safe and secure means so much for many. Having that need builds a sense of trust that everything is going to be alright. It is of great gratification for humans that are able to not worry about harm.Inching closer to the top and in actuality right in the middle is my favorite, Love Needs and Belongingness. This tier incorporates the need of affection, relationships, family, etc. Making a connection to a person and/or group is a very important need to some individuals. I’ve seen that the lack of this need has left some individuals feeling lonely and not having a sense of purpose. In some cases, these individuals ended up being very depressed. The fourth tier that is closest to the top and the second most important tier is Esteem Needs.According to the Journal of Asset Management, esteem needs are â€Å"the desire for achievement, confidence to face the world, independence, freedom, the desire for reputation and prestige, recognition, attention, and importance† (De Brouwer, 2009). I would think that these are the needs that one needs in order to build self-esteem. These needs include â€Å"respect, recognition, and confidence† (strenghtfoundation. org). Having this type of need is important in any dynamic of family, employees, friendship, and companionship. Feeling validated and a sense of importance can be viewed as really important, it did to Maslow.He advised that lack of esteem needs â€Å"results in discouragement and feelings of inferiority† (Hergenhahn & Olson, 2011). The final and top tier is self-actualization. Self-actualization â€Å"the highest level in the hierarchy of needs, which can be reached only if the preceding need levels have been adequately satisfied† (Hergenhahn & Olson, 2011). This is where the individual is living and being at their highest potential. The tier describes it as reaching the need of personal growth and fulfillment. As a student, I know that I am doing whatever there is possible to reach this need.I did once with my job. I felt that whatever task and/or issue that I was given gave me the necessary tools and resources to help me feel that I was on the right track of achieving this very need. Since then I was laid off with hundreds of others. I have yet found a job that I could feel that way again. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs has been used as a backdrop for corporate markets, economic structures, and personality development. For example, Maslow’s theory has been used to â€Å"predict development of Quality of Life in countries over time† (Hagerty, 1999).This prediction was done to a s eries of â€Å"88 countries from 1960-1994† (Hagerty, 1999). All were being researched against Maslow’s level of needs. Could humans and/or even countries strive and achieve growth and potential coming from a terrible circumstance. Do they have to have these needs in place to transition to the next level? Some people thought that Maslow’s theory could be challenged. A writer of an article about Maslow wrote: â€Å"that there were many people who have grown despite or even because of tough circumstances† (strenghtfoundation. org).Maslow did have some doubts but still stood by on how people thrive through a hopeful atmosphere. Human nature has shown differences and what are alike in this hierarchy of needs. Most of the examples are in social atmospheres. Teenagers for example seek acceptance from their peers. As a teen, I wanted to feel I was part of my group and I wanted them to like me. I saw how the treated those that they didn’t care for and I di d not want that to happen to me. As I grew older I didn’t really have that need of acceptance. I see that my son as a young boy doesn’t care if he is accepted or not.He has friends, but he feels that he doesn’t have to jump through hoop to keep them or make them like him. Generally, it is common for most individuals to want to feel safe and secure. Having a sense of fear is not healthy. It can bring forth anxiety that could be detrimental to other areas in their life. Many humans see that they can’t live without the physiological need. If I was asked before reading more about the hierarchy of needs, I would say that that would be the most important need. If we don’t eat we will not survive. Maslow has me thinking twice.This need is a never ending cycle and we have to meet it. The other needs to some could be conditional or something that they don’t deem to be important. A healthy outlook would be that of seeing these needs as a transitional platform to move on to the next goal. Some of the time we don’t get everything aligned together and needs met when they are supposed to. These are the times when an individual can find that this experience could be difficult to deal with. This would be an example to be unhealthy. Some people would obsess on the fact that they are lacking, lonely, and not achieving their highest potential.Most people don’t really know how to handle these circumstances and deal with them on a negative way. Others know how to look at the glass as half full then half empty and take a more positive approach to achieving their needs. Maslow believed that â€Å"all human needs including the need for self-actualization were instinctoid, it must be the environment (society, culture) that determines the highest level of attainment in the hierarchy of needs† (Hergenhahn & Olson, 2011). In my experience, the needs that are described in Maslow’s hierarchy are those that I am constantl y tried to move up to and maintain for as long as I remember.The some such as love needs, physiological, and safety needs are constantly going in and out of not being met. I know that I don’t live my life dwelling on what I don’t have. I believe very much in myself that I would be able to have those needs met. In conclusion, theory of the achieving the goal to self-actualization relies on the hierarchy of needs that I have illustrated in depth. Individuals are given the opportunity to achieve these needs and move up higher in the tier. Maslow's hierarchy of need was one of the main theories that assisted in paving the route to what he believed was self-actualization.Because Positive regard assists in the growth of motivation, there are certain essential functional needs that human needs, and humans can fulfill their full potential in a positive manner. References: Hergenhahn, B. & Olson, M. (2011). An introduction to theories of personality (8th ed). De Brouwer, P.. (2 009). Maslowian Portfolio Theory: An alternative formulation of the Behavioural Portfolio Theory. Journal of Asset Management, 9(6), 359-365. Retrieved January 29, 2012, from ABI/INFORM Global. (Document ID: 1645869911). Dhiman, S.. (2007). Personal Mastery: Our Quest for Self-Actualization,Meaning, and Highest Purpose. Interbeing, 1(1), 25-35. Retrieved January 29, 2012, from ABI/INFORM Global. (Document ID: 1680535071 Lowry, R. J. (1975). Dominance, Self Esteem, Self-Actualization: Germinal Papers. Contemporary Sociology, 4(5), 556-557. Retrieved January 24, 2012, from the Jstor database. Hagerty, Michael R. (1999). Testing Maslow's hierarchy of needs: National quality-of-life across time. Social Indicators Research, 46(3), 249-271. Retrieved January 30, 2012, from ABI/INFORM Global. (Document ID: 42213750). Figure 1, Maslow Enhanced | CIBU – California International Business University. (2011, March 14).Bachelor Degree, MBA Program, Doctor of Business Administration: CIBU – California International Business University. Retrieved January 27, 2012, from http://cibu. edu/general-posts/maslow-enhanced/ Human Intelligence: Edward L. Thorndike. (2012, January 26). Indiana University. Retrieved January 29, 2012, from http://www. indiana. edu/~intell/ethorndike Abraham Maslow’s work on strengths – The Strengths Foundation. (n. d. ). Welcome to The Strengths Foundation – Sharing the Strengths Way of Encouraging People. Retrieved January 29, 2012, from http://www. thestrengthsfoundation. org/3-tips-for-understanding-abraham-maslows-work-on-strengths

Late Bloomers

At the first hint of labor, she is rushed to the hospital with fear and excitement. Hours of painful contractions take over her body but the knowledge of soon meeting her unborn child keeps her hanging on. After delivery she holds her newborn son in her arms. She does not know until years later how dependent upon her this child will become. Josh does not respond well to sounds or faces but the doctor's test his hearing and find nothing wrong. A few years later this mother notices that her son is a â€Å"late bloomer† when he has not yet learned to walk or attempt to talk. His appearance is like other children his age but his abilities are limited. Josh is unable to point to objects or hold his arms out for love. He pushes away from affection wanting to be left alone to play with his toy cars. Josh finds fun in flapping his arms and laughing, usually at inappropriate times. School has come but still Josh does not speak. When he begins to speak, he talks in a repetitive babbling manner that is impossible to understand. He fears school and unknown faces. When he arrives home from school, he is repetitive in movement and activities. Josh paces the floor in circular motions and at times bangs his head on the floor. Josh does poor in school because he fails to pay attention. He has poor eye contact and is often seen with his hands over his ears. By this time, his mother has realized that he is not a â€Å"late bloomer†, something is wrong with her child. After many tests and observations, Josh is diagnosed with autism, a disease that is not curable. He will live with this social disability for the rest of his life. Josh's mother is concerned that she is to blame for his disability. She consults her doctor about the cause of this disease. It is possible that viruses and genetics have a role in Josh's autism but neurological damage is most likely. Depending upon the severity of Josh's disability he may or may not be able to care for himself in the future. He is totally dependent upon his mother for his basic needs in life. The above story is a typical scenario of a child with autism. â€Å"Autism is a severe developmental disorder characterized by profound language delay and extreme social withdrawal (San Jose Mercury News). Autism affects normal development of the brain having to do with social interactions and verbal skills. Autistic people usually have a hard time relating to the outside world. They are often described as being in an ice block. The cause of autism is still undetermined but, researchers from all over the world are devoting time and energy into finding the cause. Neurological damage can occur in any child for any number of reasons. This is why autism is so hard to diagnose and treat. This disease can affect anyone and any race. Neurological damage can be caused by many things part of the everyday life, such as vaccines. Due to a 273% autism increase in the last ten years in California, the U.S. Department of Education launched a research study. â€Å"It was decided to target mothers who had received a live virus vaccine after the age of 16, whether or not they had an autistic child.† (Yazbak, F. Edward, MD, FAAP 1999) The conjecture was that antibodies which the child had received from it's mother had some how mixed with the vaccine to create autistic results. Mothers received the vaccine to meet requirements for higher education; work related vaccines, or failure to react to previous vaccines. Two hundred forty parents of autistic children and mothers who had received vaccines were studied. Seven studies are discussed in ‘Autism: Is there a vaccine connection?' â€Å"Six out of seven children (85%) who resulted from these pregnancies were diagnosed with autism, and the seventh, (case 1) whose mother received a measles vaccine, exhibits symptoms which suggest autistic spectrum† (Yazbak, F. Edward, MD, FAAP 1999). Research is still being conducted on vaccines given to pregnant women and how the vaccines effect the unborn child. Other cases of autism are being researched, as neurological technology is becoming available. Genetics, for example, are being scanned for flaws and pictures are being taken of the brains in progress. â€Å"Phenylketonuria (a brain disease) is a purely genetic disease that can cause mental retardation† (Cook, Jr., Edwin H. 1999). If it is found early in childhood, dietary therapy can prevent this disease. It is possible autism may be treated the same way, but because this theory and many others are new, funding and research just begun. Secretion is also a therapy that can help with autism. â€Å"It is one of the hormones that controls digestion† (Lloyd, John Wills 1998). Secretion is emitted into the empty stomach by cells in the digestive system to stimulate the liver and stomach to produce enzymes that aide to digestion, and fluids that neutralize the acidity of the intestines. Pituitary adenylate cyclase activation polypeptide (PACAP) is also used. PACAP, a peptide that is used to medicate disease such as ulcers, but has a side effect of suppressing membranes which cause autistic children to act abnormal has been found. When given to rats, delayed reactions were seen in response to loud noises and open spaces. When children received secretion, their eye contact improved and alertness and expressive language were seen (Horvath, Stefanatos, Sokolski, Wachtel, Nabor & Tildon, 1998). The Tomatis Method is a much different approach. The aim of the Tomatis Method is to develop or reestablish communication when it had been lost or impaired using the ear and its various functions (Sollier, Pierre 1996) Tomatis treats the child not the disease. This treatment is not a cure; it is only used to improve the lives of autistic children. Sixty percent of the children treated show improvements, such as clearer speech, more eye contact, and interaction with other children and teacher. Parents have been reported that Tomatis Method speeds up other therapies and makes life easier. Like all treatments, there are good and bad days. Some days the children revert to their own world and again become recluses. Tomatis has found a new way to retrieve these children. To reestablished communication, Tomatis focuses on the vestibule, the inner part of the ear. â€Å"There is not one single muscle of the body, including the muscles of the eyes, that is not under control of the vestibular system† (Sollier, Pierre 1996). When the sensory input does not run smoothly the child becomes bombarded with information. The confusion of the information causes the child to withdraw into his own world to protect himself. Tomatis points out that hearing and listening are two different things. Autistic children cannot focus on the correct information coming into his senses. All of us hear background noise, but choose to focus on bits of information that are important to us. An autistic child does not have the ability to listen, he may hear cars pass by on the street below and all the other back ground noises. Autistic children ‘space out† or enter into their own world to escape the confusion of the outside world. By creating an easier way for autistic children to decipher information, the desire to speak is found. To do this, conducted research in which children listen to their mother's voice. â€Å"He electronically filtered her voice, to match the sounds heard in the womb† (Sollier, Pierre 1996). The children began to bond with people around them. It is known that a mother's voice sooths children, and since autistic children live in fear its natural that Tomatis uses the mother's voice to sooth those fears. As technology becomes available many therapies will be created to improve the life of autistic children, but the best way to improve the child's life is to educate their care providers. Autism is an incurable disease estimated to occur in 1 in 500 people (Centers for Disease and Prevention 1997). Learning the symptoms and signs of autism is the first step in education and improved care for autistic children. Signs of autism may be detected as soon as infancy. Some signs include: 1. Arching his/her back to avoid touch 2. Failure to anticipate being picked up Years ago parents did not live the burden of with autism. Most children were put away in asylums to be left in their own world, because they were not understood. These children spent their lives not knowing any other world than their own. Today with the technology we have, we can enter into the child's world and bring him back to our own. This can all be done with education and technology.

History of Social Psychology Essay

As a scientific discipline, social psychology is only a bit older than one hundred years, with most of the growth occurring during the past five decades (McGarty & Haslam, 1997). By most standards, social psychology is a relatively young science. In discussing the discipline’s history, it should be noted that there are two social psychologies, one in psychology and the other in sociology, with the larger of the two being the psychological branch (Jones, 1998). The central focus of psychological social psychology is how the individual responds to social stimuli, whereas sociological social psychology focuses on larger group or societal variables, such as people’s socioeconomic status, their social roles, and cultural norms (Stryker, 1997). Although there have been calls to merge the two social psychologies into a single field (Backman, 1983)-—and even a joint psychology-sociology doctoral program at the University of Michigan from 1946 to 1967–their different orientations make it doubtful that this will transpire in the foreseeable future. In this historical overview, the psychological branch of the discipline will be highlighted. Wundt and The Dawning of a Scientific Discipline: 1862-1894 German psychologist Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1921), who is widely regarded as the founder of psychology, had a hand in the early development of what would become social psychology. In 1862, Wundt proposed that there should be two branches of psychology: physiological psychology and social or folk psychology (Và ¶lkerpsychologie). Largely due to his influential writings, by 1900 Germany’s annual bibliography of the psychological literature listed over 200 articles per year under the heading â€Å"social psychology.† Despite his influence in shaping social psychology in Europe, Wundt’s ideas had little impact on American social scientists because his writings were not translated into English and his conception of psychology as the â€Å"science of the mind† was incompatible with the new behaviorist perspective in the United States that emerged during the early years of the 20th century. Underlying behaviorism was a philosophy known as logical positivism, which contended that knowledge should be expressed in terms that could be verified empirically or through direct observation. This new â€Å"science of behavior† had little use for Wundt’s conception of social psychology. This was especially true for the social psychology developing in psychology in America, but less so for sociological social psychology. Thus, psychological social psychology in America, which would become the intellectual core of the discipline, developed largely outside the realm of Wundtian influence. The Early Years: 1895–1935 An American psychologist at Indiana University, Norman Triplett, is generally credited with having conducted the first empirical social psychological study. In 1895 Triplett asked the following question: â€Å"How does a person’s performance of a task change when other people are present?† The question was prompted by Triplett noticing that a bicycle racer’s speed was faster when he was paced by other cyclists than when he raced alone. Being a racing enthusiast and desiring to learn what caused these different race times, he devised the first social scientific experiment. In this study, he asked children to quickly wind line on a fishing reel either alone or in the presence of other children performing the same task. As he had predicted, the children wound the line faster when in the presence of other children. Published in 1897, this study is credited with introducing the experimental method into the social sciences. Despite the significance of this study, it took a full generation for researchers to understand the social psychological dynamics underlying Triplett’s findings (see the chapter 10 discussion of social facilitation). Despite this accomplishment, Triplett did nothing to establish social psychology as a distinct subfield of psychology. Credit for this achievement goes to the first authors of textbooks bearing that title, namely, English psychologist William McDougall and American sociologist Edward Ross, who each published separate texts in 1908. Consistent with the contemporary perspective in psychological social  psychology, McDougall considered the individual to be the principal unit of analysis in this new science, while Ross, true to the contemporary sociological social psychology perspective, highlighted groups. Despite the inauguration of this new subfield within psychology and sociology, social psychology still lacked a distinct identity. How was it different from the other subdisciplines within the two larger disciplines? What were its methods of inquiry? In 1924 a third social psychology text, published by Floyd Allport (older brother of Gordon Allport), went a long way in answering these questions for psychological social psychology. Reading his words today, you can see the emerging perspective that would one day permeate the psychological branch of the field: I believe that only within the individual can we find the behavior mechanisms and consciousness which are fundamental in the interactions between individuals†¦. There is no psychology of groups which is not essentially and entirely a psychology of individuals†¦. Psychology in all its branches is a science of the individual. (Allport, 1924, p. 4) Allport’s conception of social psychology was proposed eleven years after John Watson ushered in the behaviorist era in American psychology. Allport’s brand of social psychology emphasized how the person responds to stimuli in the social environment, with the group merely being one of many such stimuli. Beyond this emerging individualist and behaviorist stamp, Allport further shaped the identity of American social psychology by extolling the virtues of the experimental method in studying such topics as conformity, nonverbal communication, and social facilitation. The pursuit of social psychological knowledge through carefully controlled experimental procedures would increasingly characterize the field in the coming years. As Allport’s conception of social psychology gained American adherents, German social psychology was being shaped by the Gestalt perspective, which rejected both the existing European-inspired notion of a group mind and the American individualist stand that groups were not real in themselves. Instead, Gestalt social psychologists contended that the social environment  is made up not only of individuals, but of relations between individuals, and these relationships have important psychological implications. Thus, Gestalt social psychologists promoted an understanding of groups as real social entities, which directly led to the tradition of group processes and group dynamics that still exists today. These two schools of thought within psychological social psychology, one in America and the other in Germany, which were developing independent of one another, would soon be thrust together due to events on the world scene. The Coming of Age: 1936–1945 During the first three decades of the twentieth century, Allport’s conception of social psychology emphasized basic research, with little consideration given to addressing specific social problems or broader issues bearing on reform. However, by the mid-1930s, the discipline was poised for further growth and expansion. The events that had the greatest impact on social psychology at this critical juncture in its history were the Great Depression in the United States and the social and political upheavals in Europe generated by the First and Second World Wars. Following the stock market crash of 1929, many young psychologists were unable to find or hold jobs. Experiencing firsthand the impact of societal forces, many of them adopted the liberal ideals of the Roosevelt â€Å"New Dealers† or the more radical left-wing political views of the socialist and communist parties. In 1936 these social scientists formed an organization dedicated to the scientific study of important social issues and the support for progressive social action (Stagner, 1986). This organization, known as the Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues (SPSSI), contained many social psychologists who were interested in applying their newly developed theories and political activism to real-world problems. One of the important contributions of SPSSI to social psychology was, and continues to be, the infusion of ethics and values into the discussion of social life. Its immediate impact on social psychology in the 1930s was to infuse a more applied character to research. New areas of research spawned during this decade were intergroup relations, leadership, propaganda, organizational  behavior, voting behavior, and consumer behavior. In other countries, world events triggered changes that further distinguished American social psychology from its scientific cousins abroad. For example, the communist revolution in Russia at the end of the First World War led to a purging of individualist-oriented research and theorizing, a development that stood in stark contrast to the increasing focus on the individual within American social psychology. In 1936, the Soviet Union’s Communist Party forbids the use of psychological tests in various applied settings, which effectively prohibited the study of individual differences. At the same time, the rise of fascism in Germany, Spain, and Italy created a strong anti-intellectual and anti-Semitic atmosphere in these countries. To escape this persecution, a number of Europe’s leading social scientists, such as Fritz Heider, Gustav Ichheiser, Kurt Lewin, and Theodor Adorno, immigrated to America. When the United States entered the war, many social psychologists—both American and European— applied their knowledge of human behavior in a wide variety of wartime programs, including the selection of officers for the Office of Strategic Services (the forerunner of the Central Intelligence Agency) and the undermining of enemy morale (Hoffman, 1992). The constructive work resulting from this collaboration demonstrated the practical usefulness of social psychology. During this time of global strife, one of the most influential social psychologists was Kurt Lewin, a Jewish refugee from Nazi Germany. Lewin was instrumental in founding SPSSI and served as its president in 1941. He firmly believed that social psychology did not have to make a choice between being either a pure science or an applied science. His oft-repeated maxim, â€Å"No research without action, and no action without research† continues to influence social psychologists interested in applying their knowledge to current social problems (Ash, 1992). By the time of his death in 1947 at the age of 57, Lewin had provided many of social psychology’s defining characteristics (Lewin, 1936; Lewin et al., 1939). With the end of the war, prospects were bright for social psychology in  North America. Based on their heightened stature in the scientific community, social psychologists established new research facilities, secured government grants, and, most important, trained graduate students. These future social psychologists were predominantly white, male, and middle class. Many of their mentors were the European scholars who had fled their native countries and then remained in America following the war. Yet, while social psychology was flourishing in this country, the devastating effects of the world war virtually destroyed the discipline overseas. In this postwar period, the United States emerged as the unchallenged world power, and just as it exported its material goods to other countries, it exported its social psychology as well. This brand of social psychology reflected the political ideology of American society and the social problems encountered within its boundaries (Farr, 1996). Rapid Expansion: 1946–1969 With its infusion of European intellectuals and the recently trained young American social psychologists, the maturing science of social psychology expanded its theoretical and research base. To understand how a civilized society like Germany could fall under the influence of a ruthless demagogue like Adolf Hitler, Theodor Adorno and his colleagues (Adorno et al., 1950) studied the psychological parameters of the authoritarian personality. Some years later, Stanley Milgram (1963) extended this line of research in his now famous obedience experiments, which examined the conditions that make people more likely to obey destructive authority figures. Social psychologists also focused their attention on the influence that the group had on the individual (Asch, 1956) and of the power of persuasive communication (Hovland et al., 1949). Arguably the most significant line of research and theorizing during this period was Leon Festinger’s theory of cognitive dissonance (Festinger, 1957). This theory asserted that people’s thoughts and actions were motivated by a desire to maintain cognitive consistency. The simplicity of the theory and its often surprising findings generated interest and enthusiasm both inside and outside of social psychology for many years. Social psychology’s concern with societal prejudice continued to assert itself during the 1950s. For example, the 1954 U.S. Supreme Court decision to end the practice of racially segregated education was partly based on Kenneth Clark and Mamie Phipps Clark’s research indicating that segregation negatively affected the self-concept of Black children. In that same year, Gordon Allport (brother of Floyd Allport) provided a theoretical outline for how desegregation might reduce racial prejudice. What came to be known as the contact hypothesis was a social psychological blueprint for reducing hostility between groups by manipulating situational variables. This perspective toward understanding and â€Å"fixing† prejudice better fit the behaviorist social psychology practiced in America than the earlier developed authoritarian personality approach. The decade of the 1960s was a time of turmoil in the United States, with the country caught in the grip of political assassinations, urban violence, social protests, and the Vietnam War. People were searching for constructive ways to change society for the better. Following this lead, social psychologists devoted more research time to such topics as aggression, helping, attraction, and love. The groundbreaking research of Elaine Hatfield and Ellen Berscheid (Berscheid & Hatfield, 1969; Hatfield et al., 1966) on interpersonal and romantic attraction, for example, was not only important in widening the scope of social psychological inquiry, but it also generated considerable controversy outside the field. A number of public officials and ordinary citizens thought social scientists should not try to understand the mysteries of romance. Less controversial was the bystander intervention research conducted by Bibb Latanà © and John Darley (1968), which was inspired by the 1984 murder of K itty Genovese in New York City. Despite the wariness of some, during the 1960s the federal government expanded its attempts to cure societal ills with the guidance of social scientists. Within this cultural context, the number of social psychologists rose dramatically. Among these new social scientists were an increasing number of women and, to a lesser degree, minority members. Whole new lines of inquiry into social behavior commenced, with an increasing interest in  the interaction of the social situation with personality factors. The multitude and diversity of these lines of research would continue into the following decades (Pion et al., 1996). Crisis and Reassesesment: 1970–1984 When social psychology first emerged from World War II and embarked on its rapid expansion, one of the pioneers in the field, Theodore Newcomb (1951), expressed concern that expectations were greater than anything that could be delivered in the near future. By the 1970s, when solutions to societal problems were no closer to being solved, and as the usefulness and ethics of experimental research came under increased scrutiny, a â€Å"crisis of confidence† emerged (Elms, 1975). When this disappointment and criticism was followed by accusations from women and minorities that past research and theory reflected the biases of a white, male-dominated view of reality, many began to reassess the field’s basic premises. Fortunately, out of this crisis emerged a more vital and inclusive field of social psychology. More rigorous ethical standards were established, and although experiments remained the method of choice, researchers began conducting more correlational studies, as well as employing other methods. Regarding accusations of racial and gender bias, social psychology began moving toward more responsible positions, but such biases have yet to be eliminated from the discipline (Graham, 1992; Tesser & Bau, 2002). Another important development during this time period was the importing of ideas from cognitive psychology in explaining social behavior. This â€Å"cognitive revolution† (see p. 00) greatly enhanced theory and research in all areas of social psychology, and its impact persists today. Accompanying the social cognitive emphasis was renewed interest in the concept of the self, which previously had been the focus of only sociological social psychologists. However, with the waning influence of behaviorism, psychological social psychologists rediscovered the insights of founding social scientists such as William James, John Dewey, Charles Horton Cooley, and George Herbert Mead. Soon the self became a central concept within psychological social psychology. An Expanding Global and Interdisciplinary View of Social Psychology: 1985–present By the 1970s, both European and Latin American social psychological associations had been founded, and in 1995, the Asian Association of Social Psychology was formed. The social psychology that developed overseas placed more emphasis on intergroup and societal variables in explaining social behavior than did its American cousin. In the mid-1980s, this overseas influence began to reshape the discipline, as social psychologists throughout the world actively exchanged ideas and collaborated on multinational studies (Fiske et al., 1998; Vala et al., 1996). Many of the new ideas about social behavior were generated by scholars from collectivist cultures who were raised within societies that have a very different perspective on the relationship between the individual and the group than that within the societies of traditional social psychologists. Subsequent cross-cultural research found that certain social beliefs and behaviors that were previously considered universal were in actuality specific to the socialization practices of individualist cultures. Based on these findings, considerable research attention was devoted to determining which aspects of human behavior are culture specific–due to conditions existing within a particular culture–and which ones are due to human’s shared evolutionary heritage. Although social psychology’s â€Å"professional center of gravity† still resides in the United States, European and Third World social psychology offers the entire field opportunities to escape what some consider the limitations of this â€Å"gravitational pull† to perceive new worlds of social reality (Shinha, 2003; Tam et al., 2003). This multicultural perspective will continue to guide research in the coming years. Contemporary social psychologists have also continued the legacy of Kurt Lewin and SPSSI by applying their knowledge to a wide arena of everyday life, such as law, health, education, politics, sports, and business (Ellsworth & Mauro, 1998; Kinder, 1998; Salovey et al., 1998). This interest in applying the principles and findings of social psychology is a natural outgrowth of the search for understanding. Despite the dominance of social cognition in the 1980s, some social psychologists raised concerns about the relative lack of focus on emotions and motives in explaining social thinking. These critics of existing social cognitive theories argued that to think of motives and affect as merely end products in a central processing system was to dehumanize social psychology. In the early 1990s, a number of social psychologists sought to establish a more balanced view by blending the traditional hot and cold perspectives into what some have termed the Warm Look. These revised social-cognitive theories proposed that people employ multiple cognitive strategies based on their current goals, motives, and needs. Theorists typically developed dual-process models, meaning that social thinking and behavior is determined by two different ways of understanding and responding to social stimuli. One mode of information processing—related to the cold perspective legacy–is based on effortful, reflective thinking, in which no action is taken until its potential consequences are properly weighed and evaluated. The alternative mode of processing information–related to the hot perspective legacy—is based on minimal cognitive effort, in which behavior is impulsively and unintentionally activated by emotions, habits, or biological drives, often below the â€Å"radar† of consciousness. Which of the two avenues of information processing people take at any given time is the subject of ongoing research. This attention to both explicit and implicit cognition has recently prompted social psychologists to explore how neural activity in the brain is associated with various social psychological processes, including self-awareness, self-regulation, attitude formation and change, group interaction, and prejudice. Although the numbers of social psychologists who pursue such research is still relatively small, the knowledge they acquire concerning the biology of social behavior will undoubtedly play a role in reshaping existing theories. Indeed, the U.S. federal government’s National Institute of Mental Health—which has an annual budget of 1.3 billion dollars–has recently given priority to research grants that combine social psychology and neuroscience. In concluding this historical overview, if the life of a scientific discipline is analogous to a person’s life, then contemporary social psychology is best thought of as a â€Å"young adult† in the social sciences. Compared with some of the more established sciences, social psychology is â€Å"barely dry behind the ears† and still subject to growing pains (Abrams & Hogg, 2004; Brewer, 2004; Rozin, 2001). Yet it is a discipline where new and innovative ideas are unusually welcome, where new theoretical approaches and scientific methods from other scientific disciplines are regularly incorporated into the study of social thinking and behavior, and where members of the discipline regularly question the social significance of their findings. In this ongoing critical self-assessment, most social psychologists are confident that their still-young science will continue revealing important insights into how we function as social creatures. Some of the milestones of the f ield are listed in table 1. Table 1 Some Milestones in the Field of Social Psychology The Dawning of a New Discipline and Early Years 1862: Wilhelm Wundt proposes that psychology establish human or social sciences (Geisteswissenschaften) to study the higher mental processes involving language, social practices and customs, religion, and art. 1897: Norman Triplett publishes the first scientific study of social behavior, on a topic that was later called social facilitation. 1900: Wundt publishes the first volume of what would become a classic 10-volume set of Và ¶lkerpsychologie (folk or social psychology) which analyzed a wide variety of social thought and behavior. 1908: Psychologist William McDougall and sociologist Edward Ross separately publish social psychology textbooks. 1920: Willy Hellpach founds the first Institute for Social Psychology in Germany. Hitler’s rise to power leads to the institute’s demise in 1933. 1924: Floyd Allport publishes the third social psychology text, clearly identifying the focus for the psychological branch of the discipline and covering many topics that are still studied today. 1925: Edward Bogardus develops the social distance scale to measure attitudes toward ethnic groups. Shortly, Louis Thurstone (1928) and Rensis Likert (1932) further advance attitude scale development. 1934: George Herbert Mead’s book Mind, Self, and Society is published, stressing the interaction between the self and others. The Coming-of-Age Years 1936: The Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues is founded. Muzafir Sherif publishes The Psychology of Social Norms, describing research on norm formation. 1939: John Dollard and his colleagues introduce the frustration-aggression hypothesis. 1941–1945: Social psychologists are recruited by the U.S. government for the war effort. Rapid Expansion Years 1949: Carl Hovland and his colleagues publish their first experiments on attitude change and persuasion. 1950: Theodor Adorno and his colleagues publish The Authoritarian Personality, which examines how extreme prejudice can be shaped by personality conflicts in childhood. 1951: Solomon Asch demonstrates conformity to false majority judgments. 1954: Gordon Allport publishes The Nature of Prejudice, which provides the framework for much of the future research on prejudice. Social psychologists provide key testimony in the U.S. Supreme Court desegregation case, Brown v. Board of Education. 1957: Leon Festinger publishes A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance, emphasizing the need for consistency between cognition and behavior. 1958: Fritz Heider publishes The Psychology of Interpersonal Relations, laying the groundwork for attribution theory. 1963: Stanley Milgram publishes his obedience research, demonstrating under what conditions people are likely to obey destructive authority figures. 1965: The Society of Experimental Social Psychology is founded. Edward Jones and Kenneth Davis publish their ideas on social perception, stimulating attribution and social cognition research. Rapid Expansion Years 1966: The European Association of Experimental Social Psychology is founded. Elaine (Walster) Hatfield and her colleagues publish the first studies of romantic attraction. 1968: John Darley and Bibb Latanà © present the bystander intervention model, explaining why people often do not help in emergencies. Crisis and Reassessment Years 1972: Attribution: Perceiving the Causes of Behavior, written by six influential attribution theorists, is published. Robert Wicklund and Shelley Duval publish Objective Self-Awareness Theory, describing how self-awareness influences cognition and behavior. 1974: The Society for Personality and Social Psychology (SPSP) is founded. Sandra Bem develops the Bem Sex Role Inventory and Janet Spence and Robert Helmreich develop the Personal Attributes Questionnaire, both of which measure gender roles. 1981: Alice Eagly and her colleagues begin conducting meta-analyses of gender comparisons in social behavior, reopening the debate on gender differences. 1984: Susan Fiske and Shelly Taylor publish Social Cognition, summarizing theory and research on the social cognitive perspective in social psychology. The Expanding Global and Interdisciplinary View Years 1986: Richard Petty and John Cacioppo publish Communication and Persuasion: Central and Peripheral Routes, describing a dual-process model of persuasion. 1989: Jennifer Crocker and Brenda Major publish their Psychological Review article on â€Å"Social Stigma and Self-Esteem,† examining how people respond to being the targets of discrimination. 1991: Hazel Markus and Shinobu Kitayama publish their Psychological Review article on how culture shapes the self. 1995: Claude Steele and Joshua Aronson publish â€Å"Stereotype Threat and the Intellectual Test Performance of African Americans† in Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, presenting their research on how negative stereotypes can shape intellectual identity and performance. 1996: David Buss and Neal Malamuth publish Sex, Power, Conflict, an edited text offering evolutionary and feminist perspectives on sex and gender interactions. A growing number of social psychologists attempt to integrate these previously divergent perspectives. (Because the passage of time ultimately determines what events significantly shape a field, I will wait a few years before adding any more milestones to this list.)